Establishing a 4-H Research Base of Graduate Studies

Introduction

For years, Cooperative Extension administrators maintained that the 4-H program lacked a strong research orientation. In the 1980s, Dr. Mary Nell Greenwood, Administrator of the Extension Service, USDA, authorized and funded a national study of attitudes and perceptions of state leaders, program leaders and specialists to "Strengthen the Research Base for Extension Programs." In response to the findings of this study, Don Stormer (1986) reported that the 4-H research base was insufficient to ensure the program's "future viability."

George McDowell, in his 2001 book, Land-Grant Universities and Extension into the 21st Century, noted that there has always been a kind of distortion regarding the intellectual investment in 4-H programming. In his words, "we always knew more about the calves and other animals than we did about the kids (p. 156)."

Granted, studies conducted by land-grant universities and USDA exist and have received notoriety. Agricultural Experiment Station studies are still conducted, and these findings, relative to the 4-H program, are available though not widely read among youth development professionals. Efforts have also been made to provide documents of 4-H research abstracts on a state or regional basis (Conch & Howard, 2004; Weatherford & Weatherford, 1987; Cheatham, Tisdale, Smith, & Morgan, 1987; Pesson & Reach, 1963; Carter & Clark, 1961; Lind, 1959).

In the 1980s, the PRK (professional, research, and knowledge) taxonomy was developed for the purpose of establishing competencies for youth professionals (Gerhard, 1988). Resources were allocated to establish a base of 4-H youth development research and resources at the National Agricultural Library (Beltsville, MD). Unfortunately, this collection has not been updated since the early 1990s.

By contrast, graduate studies have received virtually no mention as credible research upon which to build a research base for the 4-H program. Though some studies may be located and purchased through Dissertation Abstracts¹ (UMI), only a handful were ever published and used as resources for Extension agents. Graduate studies also rarely cite other 4-H-related thesis and dissertations, an indication that few studies were actually built on these former 4-H research efforts.

Objective

The purpose of the study discussed here was to locate graduate theses and dissertations about the 4-H program in order that a research base might be established to further research and improve 4-H programming.

Methods

The study investigated a century of graduate theses, dissertations, and papers. The data collected about each study included the title of the study, the author, the year of publication, the degree the individual received, and the institution (college, university or program) that conferred the degree. If the National Agricultural Library held a copy of the study, a call number was also secured. The search for studies commenced between July 1998 and July 2003.

To locate the studies, visits were first made to the National Agricultural Library to download all studies from the (Windspurs ¹) catalog with "4-H" in the title or abstract. (Most of the information about graduate studies was located in the cataloging notes.) When a thesis or dissertation was found, its bibliography was scanned for additional thesis references.

Card catalogs, archives, and department collections were checked at six major universities throughout the United States: Cornell University, George Washington University, Montana State University, Penn State University, the University of Kentucky, and Washington State University. USAIN (U.S. Agricultural Information Network) and Canadian librarians were contacted to check U.S. and international library holdings. State 4-H leader responses were solicited through e-mail messages. Additional titles were gleaned and validated on two major on-line library research bases: Dissertation Abstracts (UMI) and the WorldCat(alog).

When there were questions about the study's relevance to the 4-H program, a copy was interlibrary loaned or purchased and then reviewed. In some cases, it was also necessary to contact the registrar of the college to find information about the author's degree or a graduation date. An appreciable number of studies were located only through discussions with colleagues, presentations at conferences, and searching the written works of prominent 4-H officials and officers of NAE4-HA, both past and present.

The data were entered on a Filemaker Pro ¹ software designed so that the information could be sorted by author, date, degree, institution, and keyword or phrase. Three reviewers conducted a content analysis establishing qualitative typologies (Berg 2004), a systematic method for classifying ideas into discrete groupings. In addition to computer sorting, each title was physically placed into categories and its placement examined several times by the reviewers in order to increase the validity and reliability of the analysis.

Limitations

No attempt was made to determine the quality of research conducted, and only the studies that specifically examined the 4-H program or its members were analyzed.

Discussion of the Process of Locating and Analyzing the Studies

First, it is important to recognize that "4-H" was a difficult keyword to search. "4-H" and "4H" appear as part of dozens of chemical compounds, frequently studied in other dissertations and theses. The "4-H" found in a title or abstract may have been written as "4-H" or "Four-H", with or without the hyphen.

In the early years, the 4-H program was also known as boys' and girls' clubs, 3-H, junior clubs, and even as industrial clubs. In other countries, it may have been known as 4-A, 4-B, 4-C, 5-C, 4-K, 4-S, 4-T, and by more than 30 names in foreign languages. IFYE, a prominent 4-H program, was known as the International Farm Youth Exchange as well as the International 4-H Youth Exchange. In addition, the colleges represented by the theses and dissertations became universities, and several experienced dramatic name changes, such as Glassboro College to Rowan University. These factors made the search for studies very challenging.

Because abstracts have not been a part of the research citations until fairly recently, locating studies without "4-H" in the title was particularly difficult. Abstracts were of particular value when a significance was found that could be attributed to 4-H membership or program accomplishments.

The studies did not always provide consistent information. Six students, for example, listed the USDA Graduate School as their institution, though no one was ever known to have graduated from there. Some studies indicated only that the student received a "masters" or "doctorate" degree. In a couple of cases, a student graduated with an Ed.D., and then the distinction was later changed to a Ph.D. (likely at the preference of the student), so a designated degree could differ depending on the thesis copy and how it was catalogued. Discrepancies were also found with the spelling and grammar of the title and the date of publication.

Descriptive Findings and the Qualitative Review

Nearly 1,550 (1,547) studies were located between July 1998 and July 2003. These studies represented the years 1911 to 2002. The former year represented was the earliest study found, and 2002 was selected to include the centennial year of 4-H. New studies often require from 3 to 6 months to appear in on-line databases or to learn about through another source.

Seventy-five percent of the studies were conducted by graduate students who completed a master's degree of some kind. A little less than 25% completed doctorates, including Ph.D. and Ed.D. degrees. The remaining received terminal degrees (a Bachelor degree in Divinity, for example), certificates, diplomas, or licenses.

Students graduated from 130 colleges and universities across the U.S., Canada, and a handful of countries and territories, largely land-grant colleges and universities. But studies were also found at Harvard, Columbia, and the University of Chicago as well as at less known institutions as the Stonier Graduate School of Banking and the National Catholic School of Social Service. The studies also represented a variety of academic departments: Economics, English, Law, and Recreation, for example, as well as Education, Agriculture, and Home Economics/Family and Consumer Sciences.

One student's study was conducted at an archeological dig at a 4-H campsite. Others studied specifics such as the 4-H uniform. There are some longitudinal and alumni studies. Only a few studies were found about 4-H demonstrations or public speaking.

Those institutions graduating the most students were the University of Wisconsin (147), Ohio State University (126) and the University of Maryland (107). In the South, Louisiana State University (85) and the University of Tennessee (82) matriculated, by far, the largest number of graduate students. Over the century, many colleges and universities had a group of students that completed from 10 to 60 studies. Yet only one study about the 4-H program was found at over one-third (51) of the institutions.

Outside the U.S., Aristoteleion Panepestimion Thessalonikes (Greece), the Universidad de San Carlos (Guatemala), the Universidad Nacional de Nicaragua; the Universities of Guelph and Saskatchewan and McGill University (Canada), and the University of the West Indies were represented. Students (perhaps those from other lands attending U.S. institutions) came from: Argentina, Brazil, British Guiana, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Hungary, India, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, Surinam, Swaziland, and Trinidad, largely between 1954 and 2000. It is interesting to note that in the 1950s and 1960s, a similar trend was found among U.S. graduate students who conducted research in a U.S. state other than that of the graduating institution.

Though not a precise number because of the difficulty of analysis, approximately 40% of the graduate students conducting studies were women (highest at the end of the 20th century).

The earliest study found was from 1911: Psychology of the Club. Author, Lewis Hartson, attended Clark University during an era when studies were being conducted on informal education and "Learning by Doing" (Swift, 1914) was the educational axiom of the day. It could be argued that Jessie Field Shambaugh's (1911) work as the Iowa "Corn Lady" could also have been considered an early graduate thesis. Her book contained many elements common to scholarly documents, including methods of conducting agricultural experiments with 4-H members.

From 1911 to 2002, the number of studies peeked in the 1960s and again in the late 1980s. Dramatic dips in the number of studies seemed to occur during the years encompassing World Wars I and II and during the Vietnam War (Figure 1). At least one study was completed every year from 1926 to 2002, and at least 15 studies per year between 1954 and 2002.

Figure 1.
4-H Graduate Studies by Year
1927-2002*

The studies were diverse. Studies described unusual data collection methods, theories, and models representative of educational trends (such as competency- and criterion-based education and life skills, among others). Likewise, the use of technology in radio, film, television, slides, video, and programmed instruction was evident. Nearly all the literature reviews included historical information, and many included author vitae.

Because terminology was not consistent and studies examined a number of concepts, the reviewers chose to qualify rather than quantify the analysis. Studies were sorted into these categories, and they are listed here in approximate order from most to least.

1. Adolescent Needs and Educational Trends

2. Leadership and Leadership Development of Both Youth and Adults

3. Subject Matter Studies (mostly Agriculture and Home Economics/FCS related)

4. Tenure of 4-H Members, 4-H Leaders, and Agents

5. Curriculum, Curriculum Development, and Use of Technology

6. Competition, Awards, and Recognition

7. Evaluation and Perception Studies of 4-H by Administrators and the Community

8. Alumni Studies and Comparisons of 4-H Members and Non-Members

9. History and Biography Studies

10. Health and Recreation-Related Studies

In some studies, 4-H was considered on a time continuum with other youth organizations. Wilder (1926) and Erickson (1968) are notable examples, though Hennegan's (1950) findings coincide most closely with 1902 date associated with the 4-H centennial.

Four-H was, by far, not the only youth development organization in the early years. Standifer (1924), for example, did not consider 4-H among the dozen or so major youth organizations he compared in 1924. Riordan (1927) also did not mention 4-H, though he was concerned with "retaining our boys and girls on the farm." Credle (1922) developed USDA cooperative organizations among rural school children, and Hendrick (1927) utilized only YMCA youth in Cooperative Extension engineering efforts within Pennsylvania. Snyder (1979) claimed to have developed a nutrition program for community youth organizations when, in reality, she tested her curriculum only with Camp Fire Girls. Religious youth groups were also widely studied, though graduate student authors did not seem recognize 4-H's early orientation to such activities as "4-H Sunday."

Conclusion

The purpose of the study discussed here was to locate graduate studies written about 4-H programs and 4-H members. Nearly 1,550 studies conducted by graduate students from 130 institutions were found from the years 1911 to 2002. It may never be known how many graduate studies actually exist, though the effort to locate and review graduate studies continues.

The actual bibliographic citations were published by Scholl in 2003, and later, in a second edition (Scholl, 2004). An effort is being made to make these studies available on-line. Preservation of the studies is needed, as is making difficult-to-find copies available to lending libraries. Only one copy exists of the vast majority of titles, and perhaps a third of the studies may be found only by visiting a university archive, the academic department, or the author. Many can be purchased; costs range between 20 and 260 U.S. dollars, depending on the length and the format (fiche, microfilm, print). Often, libraries will provide an e-mail copy of the first few pages. A few institutions provide full-text documents on-line.

The studies described in this article were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a qualitative review. Further study will be conducted as more studies are found and reviewed. A determination may need to be made about the quality of the graduate research, though some would argue that each study had an advisor and a committee that signed off on the student's efforts. Studies of other youth serving organizations are needed, as well as an integration of youth development research on all levels.

Despite the fact that there is much more to discover about youth and youth development, it can be recognized that this 4-H research base includes more than animal husbandry studies, as McDowell (1991) suggested earlier. Let this collection of studies establish a basis for future research and the development of quality youth programs.

References

Berg, B. (2004). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Carter, G., & Clark, R. (1961). Selected readings and references in 4-H club work. University of Wisconsin: National Agricultural Center for Advanced Study, Publication No. 11.

Cheatham, D., Tisdale, J., Smith, W., & Morgan, K. (1987). Final report: Phase I: Synthesis and taxonomy of the research base for 4-H youth development education. Mississippi State, MS: Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service and the Department of Agricultural and Extension Education.

Couch, M. & Howard, J. (2004). Texas 4-H and youth research review 2003. College Station, TX: Texas 4-H and Youth Development Program. (This is an annual publication. Earlier editions are also available.)

Credle, F. (1922). A suggested plan for cooperative organization work among farm boys and girls. Unpublished Masters of Science thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg.

Erickson, J. (1968). American youth organizations: An etiological approach. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, University of Minnesota, St. Paul.

Gerhard, G. (1988). Factors associated with the mastery of the 4-H professional research and knowledge base by extension agents, 4-H in Ohio. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus.

Hartson, L. (1911). The psychology of the club. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Clark University, Worchester, MA (also published in the 1911 issue of the journal Pedagological Seminary).

Hendrick, F. (1927). History of engineering extension at the Pennsylvania State College. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State College, East Lansing.

Hennegan, M. (1950). Survey of ten selected youth organizations in the United States. Unpublished Master of Education thesis, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati.

Lind, C. (1959). Review of research in 4-H club activities. Author, 15 pp.

McDowell, G. (2001). Land grant universities and Extension into the 21st Century: Renegotiating or abandoning a social contract. Ames: Iowa State University Press.

Pesson, L., & Reach, N. (1963). 4-H club research in Louisiana, 1954-1963. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University.

Riordan, B. (1927). Catholic rural education in Kansas as a means of retaining boys and girls on the farm. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, University of Notre Dame, South Bend.

Scholl, J. (2003). Making the best better: 4-H graduate research 1911 to 2002. University Park: Penn State University.

Scholl, J. (2004). Making the best better: Sixteen hundred 4-H graduate studies. University Park: Penn State University.

Shambaugh, J. (1911). The corn lady: A story of a country teacher's work. Chicago:A. Flanagan.

Snyder, M. (1979). Nutrition education program for community youth organizations. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, Wayne State University, Detroit.

Standifer, E. (1924). A study of the club life of American boys and girls and its relation to the program of religious education. Unpublished Bachelor of Divinity thesis, the Chandler School of Theology of Emory University, Atlanta.

Stormer, D. (1986, May). Research base for Extension programs. News and Views, 16.

Swift, E. (1914). Learning and doing. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.

Weatherford, E., & Weatherford G (1987). A review of theory and research found in selected experimental education, life skill development and 4-H program impacts literature. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service.

Wilder, D. (1926). A study of the conditions determining the development of four youth movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, Boston University, Boston.